gent on public policies. This recruitment challenge poses a number of problems. First, students in Europe tend to be turning away from science and technology, especially when it is research oriented. Some see this as a consequence of the more critical attitude that has developed towards technical 'progress,' which is perceived as bringing as many threats as it does hopes. Others stress the lack of attractiveness of careers in these fields in terms of workload, status and pay. In Europe researchers' salaries are relatively low when com­pared to industry or the service sector" (Akrich and Miller, 2007).
     In the context of internationalization of higher educa­tion and research, the question of remuneration is crucial. In the absence of European policies that take into account stiff competition to recruit the best PhDs and post-docs, many young European researchers are attracted abroad, especially to the US. For the same reasons, this outward migration is not compensated for by sufficient inward migration, both quantitatively and qualitatively. The research job market in Europe is fragmented, organized on a national or even lo­cal scale, with a low level of competition. Selection takes place in a relatively opaque way that often favors local candidates. This mode of functioning does not promote in­ternational openness and leads to unequal levels of quality. Many authors agree that the broader a market is, the greater its specialization and the higher the overall level of quality. The low level of internationalization of the European re­search job market is not offset by intra-European mobility. It remains limited due to the rigidity of statuses and organi­zations and the absence of systems for managing scientific careers on a European scale, even if young researchers are becoming more mobile thanks to a strong European policy. Scientific dynamics and the capacity to innovate, strongly based on the possibility of establishing original links be­tween separate research currents, would undoubtedly be enhanced by active policies to promote mobility (Akrich and Miller, 2007).
     In the USA, according to a report of the National Sci­ence Foundation (NSF, 2003), the future strength of the US science and engineering workforce is imperiled by two long-term trends: (1) global competition for science and engineer­ing (S&E) talent is intensifying, such that the United States may not be able to rely on the international science and en­gineering labor market to fill unmet skill needs; (2) the num­ber of native-born S&E graduates entering the workforce is likely to decline unless the Nation intervenes to improve success in educating S&E students from all demographic groups, especially those that have been underrepresented in S&E careers (NSF, 2003). Indeed, foreign students account for about one-third of the total number of doctoral degrees in the natural sciences and engineering in the United States. Many foreigners stay in the United States after completion of their degrees to work in industry or as postdocs at American universities (Eliasson, 2004). The composition of the Ameri­can population and the American workforce is changing. The minority populations, African-Americans, Hispanics, Asians and Native Americans, will increase. More of these people will be entering college and subsequently the labor force in the next decade. Today minority groups represent 24% of the American population and only seven percent of the total labor force in science and engineering (Elias-

son, 2004). According to the Third International Math and Science Study, American fourth graders did relatively well in both subjects, but by the time they reached their senior year in high school, U.S. students ranked very low compared to students in other countries (NSF 2003). There is a great need for mathematics and natural sciences teachers in U.S. secondary schools.

5.3.2.2 Research and technology organizations: trends

"Research   and   technology   organizations   (RTOs)   are generally  non-profit  organizations  that provide  innova­tion, technology and R&D services to a variety of clients (firms, public services, administrations). This makes them 'in-between’   organizations: their financing includes both private resources (via contracts, patents and licenses) and public funds; they increasingly straddle applied and basic research, and are thereby engaged in 'frontier research', and their work has a distinct multidisciplinary dimension that includes the economic and social sciences. This particular positioning is a source of tension, so that the specificity of RTOs depends on a balance being maintained between their diverse components." (Akrich and Miller, 2007)

Historically and by construction RTOs have tended to encourage multidisciplinarity projects and have been less constrained by the boundaries between basic and applied research. Consequently, they have many assets conducive to playing a strategically important role in the current context. With links to fundamental research, RTOs have expertise in the development of tools and concepts (mathematical modeling, complex systems theory, etc.) that allow them to articulate and blend the sets of heterogeneous knowledge and technology that are major sources of innovation. RTOs are also well configured to take advantage of the increas­ing number of actors involved in research and the inten­sified relations between the scientific community and its environment.
     There is comparatively little information about R&D laboratories in the United States. Government laboratories or federal laboratories have typically been established to serve a mission of a particular government agency. They include  government-owned  but contractor-operated labs and federally-funded R&D Centers. In 2002, government laboratories received about 25 of a total of 81 billion dol­lars of total federal investments in R&D (31%), which can be compared to approximately 10 billion dollars for the academic sector. The biggest recipients are those under the Department of Defense (Eliasson, 2004).

5.3.2.3 Universities: trends Universities across Europe reflect a multitude of realities. In certain countries they are the main source of research and higher education. In other countries they coexist with large research organizations and even, as in France, with other types of higher education institutions (Grandes Ecoles) that are increasingly engaged in research. On the whole, there is less investment in higher education in Europe than in other countries such as the US. Funding is primarily from the public sector, and students pay a relatively low share of the education costs. However, funding for university-