animals and the lack of marketing systems (Coppock, 1994).

The status of animal genetic resources. The domestic animal genetic resources in SSA are mainly indigenous livestock, which have been described as nondescript and have been characterized as having low genetic potential for production traits such as milk, meat and eggs. In recent times, the reduction in number of pastoralists is mainly due to diminished grazing lands as agricultural activities have increased, and land use has shifted to reserves for wildlife and forestry. In general, these types of pressures affect animal genetic resources by decreasing the number of breeds, causing a net loss of breed genetic diversity.

The large number of animal genetic resources is at risk due to factors such as environmental and human preferences. Natural disasters and social insecurity have also been detrimental to the diversity of animal genetic resources. As a result of drought and political instability in Somalia, cattle and small ruminant populations decreased by 70 and 60%, respectively. Such reductions in herd size can significantly affect genetic diversity to the extent of reducing food security and economic well-being of the livestock owners and national economy (Drucker, 2001).

In most of sub-Saharan Africa, where the subsistence level of livestock keeping is practiced, it has been seen that cattle are particularly important for providing food, risk mitigation, draft power, manure and cash income. Goats are second to cattle in importance followed by chickens.

Indigenous breeds of livestock. In sub-Saharan Africa, changes in livestock diversity brought by the introduction of exotic breeds, has led to genetic erosion in various countries due to loss of indigenous breeds or sub-types of livestock. These lost breeds may have had unique genes that cannot be easily replaced in the future. It is well known now that the local breeds constitute an irreplaceable stock of adapted germplasm and should be conserved for both present and future use. The utility of the local breeds should be demonstrated by comparing them with exotic breeds for overall productive efficiency (not merely for short-term milk yield or growth rate) to avoid their elimination through crossbreeding and replacement (Msechu et al., 1987).

Indigenous livestock breeds in sub-Sahara are popular due to low management costs. Many are better adapted to harsh conditions and to some livestock diseases compared to exotic cattle and their crosses. Their attributes include resilience on fragile and marginal land and in drought and stress conditions for longer periods. Selection in pastoralists’ herds is usually confined to phenotypic traits of less economic importance, such as color and horn shape. The high value in risk management from cattle is reflected in the fact that 90% of the indigenous cattle are owned by the traditional sector where livestock serve as a bank to be drawn from in times of need. Milk and meat are two important products from cattle. The demand for draft power has been on the increase and some communities keep cattle for draft rather than milk and meat. Cattle are also used to meet several social obligations including dowry and sacrifices. Indigenous livestock, such as cattle and goats, however, are

small in size and have low growth rates leading to late maturity and poor milk and meat production (Marples, 1964). In poultry, indigenous chickens have poor egg laying and meat producing performance, compared to exotic breeds. Chickens are also important as a source of quick cash, especially for women and youth, and for traditional festivals and sacrifices. These are kept mostly under free-range or under semi-intensive production systems. The indigenous chickens comprise several strains and are well adapted to the freerange production system under minimum management. The indigenous birds produce 100% of the chicken meat and eggs consumed in the rural areas and 20% of the meat consumed in the urban areas (Das et al., 2003).

Exotic livestock and their crosses. The introduction of temperate livestock genotypes into sub-Saharan Africa has not usually been successful due to their low survival rates or inability to adapt, which had led to low fertility rates. Their performance for meat, milk and egg production is lower than in their countries of origin, due mainly to poor adaptation to the tropical environment and diseases. Some aspects of lower performance can also be attributed to poor management. The introduction of exotic livestock for purebreeding and crossbreeding that started in the colonial period is ongoing (Payne, 1990). Crossbreeding of indigenous livestock for purpose of improvement of both the meat and dairy industries in some SSA countries has grown to successful levels. For example, in Tanzania, the crossbreeding work on livestock started in 1920s with the intention of producing crossbred livestock to meet the demands for milk, meat and eggs. In various countries, the public sector has for many decades been engaged in livestock improvement, multiplication and distribution of improved genetic materials. The efficiency of this system has been hampered by meager funding and has failed to meet demand (mainly centered on ruminant livestock seed multiplication and distribution). The livestock seed supply involved local, purebred exotic cattle, crossbreeds and composite breeds.

With the current free market economy, globalization and anticipated participation of the private sector, exotic breed populations are expected to increase, owing to the fact that most farmers now opt for high yielding animals for marketing purposes. However, indigenous livestock products remain highly preferred by local communities. Improvement in the productivity of indigenous chickens through breeding has been intermittent in sub-Saharan Africa. Earlier efforts were made to cross indigenous strains with exotic British and American poultry breeds of Light Sussex, Rhode Island Red, Black Australop or New Hampshire to improve on size and egg production potential. At present, efforts are being made to identify the different strains of indigenous birds visually and to follow up by comparing their production traits (Das et al., 2003).

Technologies for management of animal genetic resources. In most sub-Saharan African countries, the tools used in the development of domesticated livestock are record-keeping and individual identification for breeding purposes. Use of these tools is limited to state farms and a few small-scale farmers that keep crossbred animals provided by NGOs.