Median of ROR for Productivity Increases
Evenson        Alston et al. (2001)               (2001a)

Environmental externalities

Health externalities

Impact on poor

All crops

57

44

0

Wheat

51

40

— Irrigation with poor drainage + high yields reduce need to clear forest

0/+

+/-

Rice

60

51

— over irrigation & high pesticide use + high yields reduce need to clear forest

- pesticides

+/-

Maize

56

47

— over irrigation & high pesticides + high yields reduce need to clear forest

- pesticides

+/-

Other cereals

57

n/a

+/-

Fruits and vegetables

67

n/a

— high pesticide use

— high pesticides affect laborers & consumers + improves nutrients in diet

+ home gardens/-commercial

Livestock

36

53

— for intensive livestock production which can lead to nitrogen and phosphorus pollution of water

- zoonotic diseases - food poisoning + increases protein & minerals in diet

+ if subsistence or milk coops - if intensive or contract production???

Forestry

n/a

14

+ if agroforestry

Forest products

37

n/a

?

Tree crops

n/a

33

- plantations that replace uncultivated land can reduce biodiversity + plantations that replace crops could be a carbon sink

- if plantations

Resource management

n/a

17

++ for more effective management which substitutes labor for chemicals

+ if reduce use of pesticides

+ if saving resources of poor or tech is labor intensive

Developing countries

37-67

43

CGIAR

39-165

40

++

Private

50

34

— intensive livestock and pesticide use, but management & biotech can reduce chemical pesticides

- if increases pesticide use + if it reduces pesticide use

- or 0