curity. Major economic and social indicators began to show a decline in agricultural and industrial production and manufacturing by the end of 1970. The agricultural decline provoked massive food imports. These negative economic trends were exacerbated by adverse terms of trade, the oil crisis and the slump in the world economy. At the same time domestic problems, including civil strife and ethnic violence, threatened the stability of many sub-Saharan Africa states.

3.2.1 Investment and economic returns
Investments in agricultural R&D, particularly investments to develop risk-reducing and efficient technologies, are crucial determinants of agriculture growth. After years of relative neglect, agriculture has returned to the economic agenda of several African countries (World Bank, 2003). Increased production is the principal objective of public and private research in most SSA countries.

Roughly $1.5 billion (in 2000 international dollars) is spent annually on agricultural productivity programs in Africa. This figure includes public and private expenditures aggregated on national and global levels (Pardey et al., 2006). Much of this spending is concentrated in national programs, about half of which are financed by African governments, and the other half from external sources. A small proportion of the total is administered at the international level.

Returns on investments in agricultural research have generally been high (see Global Chapter 8), but in many countries research program productivity is low. The tendency is to support international and regional research, but innovations that reach farmers have not necessarily increased (Eicher, 2001).

International assistance has played a key role in agricultural research among developing countries, especially in Africa. Funding from loans and grants accounted for about 36% of total research expenditure in SSA in 2000. This was slightly lower the 43% in 1991 (Beintema and Stads, 2006). Analysts are particularly critical of the role of foreign assistance in Africa. Over the last two decades, critics have pointed to the high tolerance for defective institutions that produce little (FAO/SPAAR, 2002a). The decline in funding for agricultural research has prompted many NARS to give more attention to regional research, which uses available resources more efficiently. NARS are promoting collaborative work ranging from information exchanges to integrating research projects (FAO/SPAAR, 2002b).

3.2.2 National, regional and international actors

3.2.2.1 National actors and initiatives
Despite recognition of the important contribution agricultural research can make to economic growth and poverty reduction, Africa’s national agricultural research and development institutions (NARS) face declining and unstable public funding. The efficiency and effectiveness of NARS have declined. Dependence on international donors has increased, but this funding remains largely unpredictable and highly variable across subsectors.

A recent study concluded that NARS lack the capacity to generate and maintain financial information; an imbalance exists between the goals of the NARS and the funding available to achieve these goals; government commitment to

agricultural research has been cosmetic; and demand-driven research requires funding that addresses small-scale farmer concerns. The low percentage of representation of farmers and private businesses in NARI governance is of concern. Also of concern is sustainable financing; some governments deliver funds erratically and recruit only skilled human resources. NARS also lack consistent and high speed Internet capabilities.

 Market-driven agriculture is placing new pressures on governments, communities and farmers to produce more for both domestic and international trade. National reforms remain vital for success, and the options for institutional reforms abound. Recently innovative national programs have supported agricultural organizations like those in Cote d’Ivoire (NASSP 2), Senegal (PSAOP) and Mali (PASAOP). They have strengthened relations between research and extension by promoting collaborative planning of research and development. For example, Cote d’Ivoire established Centre National de Recherche Agricole (CNRA), the first semi-private research institution in west and central Africa in 1997. A key feature of the center is the autonomy of leadership from direct government influence.

The National Agricultural Services Support Program (NASSP) was designed to provide appropriate agricultural services for farmers. NASSP 1 restructured the extension services, establishing a semi-private, demand-driven rural development agency, Agence Nationale du Développement Rural (ANADER). NASSP 2 created CNRA by merging two independent research centers, one working on forest humid zones and the other on savanna zones. CNRA decreased the number of staff members and offered higher salaries based on performance evaluation. Despite the recent political instability of Cote d’Ivoire, CNRA is an effective NARS implementing local and regional research using interdisciplinary methods in collaboration with international institutions. One of its more innovative features is a sustainable financing scheme from private investors. The financing objective is to provide 60% of capital assets and budgetary needs as the government contribution decreases to 20% of the total budget.

3.2.2.2 Regional actors and initiatives
In 1980, The Lagos Plan of Action called for food self-sufficiency (OAU, 1980). The Regional Food Plan for Africa (AFPLAN) responded to the African socioeconomic development crisis, advising governments to play a lead role in development because of the limited size and capacity of the private sector. Publicly funded programs responded by supporting agriculture research and extension, supplying fertilizer, and supporting export production and marketing and food distribution.

Collaboration in agricultural research has improved considerably in recent years because of the establishment of networks and regional coordinating bodies such as the Association for Strengthening Agricultural Research in East and Central Africa (ASARECA) and FARA. Much of the collaboration has been limited to information exchange, but potentially it will develop into regionally defined and country-specific research, provided that mutual trust can be established (Chema et al., 2003). The West Africa Agricultural Productivity Program (WAPP), as a pilot program