2004). About 400 improved varieties of sorghum and 40 groundnut strains were developed and have been released by ICRISAT (Ntare et al., 2005).

Extensive research has also been carried out by NARS and by research institutions from the North (Canada, US, several European countries, etc.) working in SSA countries. Some typical examples are the evaluation and improvement of coffee by ORSTOM (Berthaud and Charrier, 1988), the improvement by NARS of rice lines tolerant to iron toxicity in Ghana (Owusu et al., 1999) and the release for largescale production of two accessions of kafirs (sorghum races from South Africa) in Ethiopia (Menkir and Kebede, 1984). Following this trend, a drawback was observed: after the political independence of former African colonies, some edible wild plants, e.g., Dioscorea praehensilis, were forgotten and replaced by recently introduced species.

Agricultural production has stagnated or declined in important food crops such as cereals, tubers and legumes. Crop yields and productivity in most African countries are about the same as 20 years ago. In 1998, cereal yields in sub-Saharan Africa averaged 1 tonne ha-1, 15% lower than the world average of 1.2 tonnes ha-1 in 1965. Cereal yield was stagnant around 1 tonnes ha-1 from the 60s to 2000 in the SSA region (Eicher et al., 2005). This raises the question of whether or not farmers are using improved crop genetic resources.

Improved genetic resources were released by international research centers and NARs through preliminary varietal trials (PVT), extension services and pilot farmers. An impact study of new extra-early maize varieties adapted and released in the Sudan savanna of Nigeria was completed; the adoption rate (14%) was found to be low (IITA, 2004). Scarcity of seed and little seed exchange farmer-to-farmer were evoked as the reason for low adoption. Farmers have limited access to seeds of newly bred modern varieties. The supply of breeder, foundation, certified and commercial seed of varieties preferred by farmers or required by the markets is limited. Seed demand is also uncertain and weak; thus, seed production is not profitable. In addition there is poor integration between seed and product markets (Ntare et al., 2005).

To ensure food security in the SSA region, the widespread adoption of improved crop genetic resources requires favorable government policies and profitable markets for crop production. Seed regulations are currently inconsistent between the national and subregional levels. Harmonization of seed regulations may facilitate the movement of improved seeds within the subregion, could help maximize the use of limited technical and infrastructural capacities and reduce unnecessary duplication. Seed delivery for promising genetic resources can be strengthened through regional participatory approaches. The West Africa Seed Network (WASNET) and East Africa Seed Committee (EASCOM) promote seed development at local, national and regional levels in the framework of NEPAD. Potential food crops in the SSA region should be preserved and evaluated for important characteristics such as food value and ability to withstand stresses and protected from genetic erosion by natural calamities such as drought and desertification. GMO (genetically modified organism) and non-GM

technologies exist for improving crop genetic resources. For example tissue culture has enabled the improvement of plantain banana and rice (Dhlamini, 2006). Commodities for which GMO varieties are available for commercial production include maize, cotton, canola, Irish potatoes, tomatoes, papaya, squash, soybeans and rape (ASARECA, 2006c).

In the SSA region, South Africa is the only country growing GM crops commercially; areas under GM maize increased from 14.6% in 2005 to 29.4% in 2006 (ASARECA, 2006c). None of the COMESA/ASARECA countries has yet given approval for the commercial release of any GMO crops. Perceptions on GMOs include unexpected results such as environmental contamination and human health concerns (e.g., application of more pesticides when working with a pesticide resistant crop), biodiversity conservation (Persley, 1990) and problematic for organic certification if farmers plant GM crops due to potential cross fertilization with other plant varieties which cannot be controlled.

There are arguments against the use of GMOs and particularly the potential introduction of “terminator” technology (Genetic Use Restriction Technology), seeds that have been genetically engineered to produce sterile seeds at harvest. According to many scientists, molecular biocontainment systems (such as “terminator”) are not a reliable mechanism for preventing escape of transgenes and have not been proven 100% effective (NRC, 2004; Heinemann, 2007). Many other concerns have been raised about further concentration of corporate control over seed supply. Further concerns involve farmer decision-making power, as contractual prohibitions and patent violations on Intellectual Property Rights (IPR) could terminate the right of farmers to sell or share common seeds (FAO, 2004b).

The minimum requirement of the Cartagena Biosafety Protocol, which allows unrestricted import of living GMOs intended for food use (or feed or processing), may increase the chances that some GM maize grains are planted. Many countries in Africa are utilizing tissue culture in their research and others have GM products in the pipeline (e.g., Kenya with maize stemborer resistant, Uganda with banana nematode and sigatoka disease resistance) (ASARECA, 2006c). Some stakeholders, including agricultural policy makers and biotechnology scientists in SSA consider GMOs as an option in accelerating agricultural development and increasing domestic food productivity in the region. A key question is “what is the cheapest source of new cereal crop technology in Africa: old fashioned plant breeding or GM research?” (Eicher et al., 2005). The importation of GM
seeds is not yet officially restricted. If adopted, the use of GM seeds should proceed cautiously and the minimum standard set by the Cartagena Protocol should be applied so that risk associated with planting GMO seeds is minimized (ASARECA, 2006c).
2.1.3 Crop production systems, quality of production and productivity
Agricultural crop production plays a major role in ensuring food security, good nutrition and poverty alleviation in the sub-Saharan Africa (SSA). Inadequate crop production has over the years resulted in malnutrition and widespread poverty in parts of the region. Crop production systems that have