SEI, 2002; MA, 2005). Agroforestry may have particular potential in dryland areas of SSA which have until recently been relatively ignored by research and development agencies (Leakey, 1999; Roy-Macauley and Kalinganire, 2007).

A cluster of challenges have been identified by a number of organizations and working groups including the Southern African Regional Agroforestry 2002 conference. These challenges include the emergence of second generation issues such as pests and diseases, declining investment from national governments, lack of improved planting materials, weak linkages with the private sector and therefore markets for agroforestry products, and uncertainties over climate change, biotechnology, and globalization (Roy-Macauley and Kalinganire, 2007). Further, men and women in SSA typically prioritize different agroforestry products and so are likely to have different preferences for tree varieties and management practices.

In SSA unlike for example, Southeast Asia, markets for non-timber forest products are small (Leakey et al., 2005). There is currently little value added with respect to products from natural forests and from agroforestry, in part because of the lack of focus on postharvest issues including processing and certification, in part because of poorly developed domestic and international markets. There are opportunities to expand market opportunities locally, regionally and internationally that would provide incentives for the development of agroforests. In most of SSA (with the exception of East Africa), many of the potential tree products have potential use in the growing ethnic food industry in Europe and the US (Leakey, 1999). East and southern Africa have the greatest potential to produce indigenous medicinal products for a worldwide market. Increasing market opportunities increases the scope for private sector involvement in research (Leakey et al., 2005).

5.7.2 Forests and energy
Men and women in SSA typically prioritize different agroforestry products and so are likely to have different motivations for adopting particular agroforestry innovations (Gladwin et al., 2002). For example, men are more likely to plant trees in croplands whereas women typically plant trees for fuelwood (Gladwin et al., 2002), reflecting women’s role in collecting fuelwood for cooking and heating. Women are likely to benefit significantly from research into rapidly growing tree species that supply fuelwood whereas men might be less likely to support research into fuelwood but more likely to support the development of revenue-generating species. One approach is to identify trees with multiple purposes that can be introduced into an agroforestry system. For example, fruit trees offer market opportunities for farmers, if markets are available for the output, and can improve household nutritional status.

A number of preconditions enable the scaling up of agroforestry research and extension: national and regional peace and security; good and transparent governance; demand for products and market access; sound national and global economies; legislation regarding intellectual property rights; an active process of democratization; functional rural infrastructure; decentralization of decision-making; and resource availability (Cooper and Denning, 1999). International efforts will aid scaling up (Leakey et al., 2005) such

as developing skills for domestication of indigenous species, processing and storage, and expanding community training.

SSA countries meet more than 50% of their total primary energy consumption from biomass which predominantly consists of unrefined traditional fuel such as firewood and crop and animal residues. Use of biomass as a source of energy in its traditional forms results in inefficient energy conversion, environmental and health hazards, is time-consuming in terms of collection, and contributes to the degradation of forests. For example, in Tanzania, over 80% of energy consumption is fuelwood.

AKST has played a role in improving traditional bioenergy technologies, such as in the design and supply of efficient cooking stoves. However, so long as fuelwood is free to collect from nearby forests, poor villagers are unlikely to pay for fuel efficient stoves, even when these villagers, predominantly women and children, spend many hours each week or even each day collecting it. Therefore, in the short to medium term, the pressure on forests is more likely to be reduced through the development of village and individual woodlots.

Some SSA countries, e.g., Malawi, South Africa, Ghana, Kenya, Nigeria, Benin and Mauritius, have initiated programs for cogeneration of electricity and heat and the production of biofuels from biomass. The supply of bioelectricity to rural households and rural enterprises is particularly important in rural areas where communities are not connected to the national grid. Saw mills in countries including Tanzania are already using some residues for power and cooking though much is burned thereby causing air pollution. Some residues could be converted to charcoal, and
heat gasifiers are relatively simple, though electricity generation is more complex.

Any strategy to promote biofuels needs to be aware of the pressure to expand onto forested and marginal lands, which has the potential to create competition for water, and displacement of people. Large scale monocropping could result in biodiversity loss, soil erosion and nutrient leaching. Many biofuels benefit from economies of scale and so the benefits of biofuel promotion could bypass poor farmers. To include small-scale farmers requires effort to, for example, supply them with seeds and identify biofuel crops that are appropriate for small areas of marginal land.

5.8 Fisheries and Aquaculture
Poor people in SSA are highly dependent on marine and inland capture fisheries and fish from aquaculture for protein and for livelihoods; fish protein constitutes about 22% of overall animal protein intake. Inland fisheries (lakes and rivers) have played a particularly important role in meeting the increased demand for fish in SSA and currently supply the majority of fish consumed in many SSA countries.

Rural fishing communities in SSA generally have a higher percentage of people living below the poverty line than the national average (Whittingham et al., 2003). Catch levels are generally above their maximum sustainable yield levels, which further exacerbates the loss of economic rent from the fishery, increases poverty and loss of livelihoods, and decreases food security (Fisheries Opportunities Assessment, 2006). Increasing demand for fish and the relatively low levels of investment required to earn at least enough to