populations in order to meet the challenge of specific local demand and maintain a large genetic diversity.
Considering crops, important measures include:
• Develop methods and tools to accompany the preservation of genetic diversity on farm.
• Broaden the conservation circles to establish closer collaboration with grassroots conservation movements and community seed banks.
6.2.6.4 Potential ofAKST for developing energy efficient food and farming systems
Farming and food systems (FFS) in NAE are energy intensive. Even though farming in general accounts for only about 5% of total energy consumption in the most of the NAE region, this share increases to over 20% of total energy use once food processing, packaging and distribution are included (Fluck, 1992; Giampietro and Pimentel, 1993; Pimental and Giampietro, 1994; Heller and Keoleian, 2000; Heller and Keoleian, 2003; Murray, 2005; Williams et al., 2006). At the farm scale, about 85% energy inputs in NAE farming systems are carbon fossil based: other sources are relatively undeveloped. 50% of farm energy relates to agro-chemicals, mainly nitrogen fertilizer, 30% to field machinery and transport and 20% to energy services linked to heating, lighting and materials handling (Box 6-6).
Current NAE farming and food systems and related livelihoods are especially vulnerable to increased energy prices and reduced fossil fuel supplies. Although high energy prices will continue to increase the scope for bioenergy crops, energy efficiency will remain a critical component of their feasibility (Stout, 1991).
AKST is a critical factor in understanding and influencing the farming-energy relationship. In the face of rising energy prices, the following possible priorities are identified:
• Enhanced understanding of energy use and efficiency in farming systems, including synergies and trade-offs with other "performance" indicators such as yield, quality, added value and environmental impacts.
• Development of data bases and evaluation methods such as energy auditing, budgeting and life cycle analysis. Improved farmer and operator skills in energy auditing and management for field and farmstead operations.
• Adapting existing and development of new energy saving technologies for crop and livestock production addressing major field and farm operations and processes, including:
- Improved minimum cultivation systems
- Combination tillage and crop establishment field operations, including gantry systems
- Precision application of fertilizers and crop protection chemicals
- Whole crop harvesting systems
- Handling, storage and treatment of materials and deriving energy from "wastes"
- Irrigation application systems
• Technology development in alternative energy sources, including on-farm wind, solar and groundwater heat and use of ambient conditions to provide energy services in drying and storage.
• Genetic development, using conventional and transgenic |
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Box 6-6. Energy efficiency in NAE food and farming systems
Energy efficiency in farming can be measured in terms of the ratio of the energy content of output to the energy content of inputs, excluding solar energy in crop photosynthesis and measured in joules or equivalent.
Energy ratios vary across the NAE region according to average yield levels (t/ha) that in turn are a function of the environmental factors and the relative scarcity of land and labor (Pimentel and Giampietro, 1994). Where population pressure is relatively high and land is relatively scarce, such as in many parts of western and northern Europe, high yielding agriculture tends to have high energy inputs per ha and per tonne of product. This gives relatively low energy ratios, of about 1 or less. Where land is relatively plentiful and labor is scarce (and relatively expensive), such as in North America, farming systems are more extensive, have lower energy inputs per ha and per ton of product, but higher (almost 5 times more) energy input per farm worker.
In Eastern Europe and Russia, conditions vary considerably, but relatively low energy inputs per ha and per worker are associated with relatively low yields. In some parts of NAE, some small-scale, peasant-type farming systems can display high energy ratios, but low yields and low added-value are often associated with low incomes and poverty.
The enhanced yield performance of crop and livestock systems in the NAE has thus been based on low cost, readily accessible energy supplies. Furthermore, commonly promoted strategies for adding value to farm products and increasing farm incomes, such as quality assurance, product differentiation and on-farm processing, tend to be energy intensive. Although organic production, now finding favor amongst some consumers, uses less agrochemical energy, inputs of labor and mechanization tend to be higher and overall yields lower than conventional methods. This results in similar, if not reduced, energy efficiency compared with conventional methods.
There are also important links between energy use, greenhouse gases and global warming potential (GWP). For the most part in agriculture, they are indirect, given that most energy is associated with the use of fertilizers and machines. Nitrous oxide (N2O) in particular and methane (CH4) emissions (from ruminate livestock) have the greatest impact GWP, more so than CO2 emissions. However the origin of N2O is linked to high fertility soil so there is little difference between organic and conventional systems (Williams et al., 2006). There are also other important links with other environmental impacts, such as soil erosion and compaction, water pollution and worker and animal welfare. At the same time, however, energy intensification has helped to reduce drudgery in farm work and has improved the health and life-expectancy of farm workers, and enhanced the skill base and rewards for farm workers, factors which are important in the recruitment and retention of people in farming. |