tiative by the Mexico-based International Maize and Wheat Improvement Center (CIMMYT) to promote the use of QPM (Quality Protein Maize) in several Central American and South American countries could be mentioned. Another example is INIFAP’s adaptation of genetic material produced by CIMMYT to areas with a high concentration of poverty in the states of Oaxaca and Guerrero. In combination with the National Institute of Nutrition, INIFAP has already gathered statistical evidence to show the nutrition benefits offered by these types of maize to indigenous children in Oaxaca.

2.2.2 Clients of the AKST system
Different socioeconomic segments strive to determine the focus of research in relation to their own needs and aspirations. Assessments have been carried out of the importance to the public agricultural R&D sector of a variety of economic-social segments as target groups or beneficiaries of research in the field.

Castro et al. (2005) analyzed the situation in six Latin American countries (Brazil, Cuba, Mexico, Panama, Venezuela and Peru). Their study revealed general agreement among researchers in the region regarding the relatively low importance of social segments such as subsistence farmers and small family producers vis-à-vis medium- and largescale producers. This work offers at best a partial perspective— only researchers were consulted. It therefore does not reflect the points of view of other sectors of society. Trigo and Kaimowitz’s research (1994) on Latin America and the Caribbean, however, confirms that the benefits derived from the agricultural research undertaken by NARIs were mainly directed towards the larger, market-oriented farmers located in favorable ecological zones (Trigo and Kaimowitz, 1994).

           This view of agricultural research is much more closely linked to economic development and agribusiness, and less to the social development of underprivileged segments like subsistence farmers and indigenous communities in agroecosystems (Trigo and Kaimowitz, 1994; Castro et al., 2005; Santamaría et al., 2005).

          A study by Castro et al. (2005) also found that nongovernmental organizations were considered of little importance as agricultural research clients in Venezuela and Peru; of medium importance in Panama, Mexico and Brazil; and of high importance only in Cuba—even though Trigo and Kaimowitz (1994) noted the importance of NGOs with regard to the development of sustainable technologies, which involves highlighting local demands difficult to identify through the traditional approach to technology transfer.

           Decentralizing research activities through the training of local non-governmental organizations, extension agencies, and farmers, in order to carry out simple adaptive research, would appear to be in order (Trigo and Kaimowitz, 1994). New priority clients also mentioned in studies on the subject include public policymakers and agroindustry. This takes into account recent advances in scholars’ concept of agricultural research as not only directed at rural producers but at society as a whole—in this case, represented by consumers.

           The greater importance of agroindustry as a client suggests a conception of agricultural research as linked to production chains and the development of processes technology

capable of adding value to primary agricultural production, as well as competitiveness to those chains. This concept, more recent in the region, replaces the view of agricultural research as linked exclusively to primary production that prevailed until the 1980s. Trends governing demand imply greater specialization and a call for technology products aimed at a broader typology of producers (Lindarte, 1990; Trigo and Kaimowitz, 1994; Castro et al., 2005).

           Finally, a notion emerged in the 1990s that attaches greater importance to clients such as policymakers, input providers, wholesalers, and retailers: It suggests a more politically influenced organization of research and a search for partners to resolve the shortage of financial resources (Trigo and Kaimowitz, 1994; Cetrángolo, 1996; Castro et al., 2005) (Table 2-4).

          Historically, agricultural research organizations have found it difficult to determine the focus of research for each socioeconomic segment, involving as it does many complex dimensions—political, scientific, technological, environmental, economic, and administrative. To make matters worse, scientific progress has been uneven throughout the region (Castro et al., 2005).

          While knowledge regarding the demands of medium- and large producers is ample, research organizations know little about the demands of other segments, such as subsistence farmers, indigenous communities, and small family farmers linked to production chains, and do not much value them.

2.2.3 Research styles
Research activities may be geared to different purposes. These purposes are commonly associated with the different types of research: basic, applied, adaptive, and strategic.

           Studies that assess current research efforts by the public and private sectors regarding agricultural research of each type show that organizations involved in these activities are strongly oriented toward applied research, followed by adaptive research. Strategic research is the least important at present, but will become more important in the future, along with basic research.

           During the 1950s, the dominant approach was adaptive research, based on the belief among policymakers that sufficient technology existed for the modernization of agriculture. This view prompted the establishment of agricultural extension systems in nearly all Latin American countries (Trigo and Kaimowitz, 1994).

           The role of the private sector was limited to supplying seeds and agrochemicals. The food processing industry was still in its early stages, strongly dependent on public sector support. Except in the case of a few export products, private research was virtually non-existent. (Malan, 1984; Moura, 1990).

           An analysis of historical trends suggests a gradual decline of applied and adaptive research in the public sector in favor of increasing efforts in basic and strategic research (Castro et al. 2005).

           The development of biotechnology has prompted a change of emphasis towards basic research, which is evident in the growing importance of laboratory work with regard to fieldwork. Greater importance is attached to research institutions involved in basic science. For their part, Trigo and Kaimowitz (1994) note the importance of restrictions in