transport and trade. However, a number of unapproved varieties have also spread unintentionally, creating potential genetic contamination problems that countries must be increasingly prepared to tackle (www.gmcontaminationregister. org/ or link through CBD Cartagena Protocol Biosafety Clearinghouse). In 2006, unapproved GM traits which originated in rice field trials in the US and China were found in commercial rice sold in European supermarkets; consequently farmers suffered serious economic losses due to subsequent bans on imports. Later there were additional costs in both countries for certification of freedom from unapproved GM traits. Similar controversy followed the discovery of transgenes in landraces of maize in Mexico (Quist and Chapela, 2001; Kaplinski, 2002; Kaplinski et al., 2002; Metz and Fütterer, 2002ab; Quist and Chapela, 2002; Suarez, 2002; Worthy et al., 2002). There is also evidence of increased invasiveness/weediness as a result of the gene flow of GM traits, such as herbicide and insect resistance, into cultivated or wild and weedy relatives (e.g., Snow et al., 2003; Squire et al., 2005), making them more difficult to control (Cerdeira and Duke, 2006; Thomas et al., 2007). In Canada, double and triple herbicide resistant oilseed rape volunteers occur in other crops, including other resistant soybeans and maize requiring the use of herbicides other than glyphosate or glufosinate (e.g., Hall et al., 2000; Beckie et al., 2004). The same is true for herbicide-resistant crop volunteers in the US (e.g., Thomas et al., 2007). In Canada, organic oilseed rape production in the prairies was largely abandoned because of widespread genetic contamination with transgenes or transgenic oilseed rape (Friesen et al., 2003; Wong, 2004; McLeod-Kilmurray, 2007).

Current risk assessment concepts and testing programs for regulatory approval are incomplete and still under development.

Risk assessment concepts for genetically modified (GM) plants exist in regulations, guidelines and discussion documents in some countries, e.g., USA (Rose, 2007), Canada (Canadian Food Inspection Agency, 2004), the European Union (EC, 2002; EFSA, 2004, 2007) and internationally (OCED, 1986, 1993; Codex Alimentarius, 2003). Some groups have expressed the view that premarket testing for environmental risks of GM crops to nontarget organisms needs to follow protocols for chemicals, such as pesticides (Andow and Hilbeck, 2004), and have called for alternative approaches. A number of concepts are currently being developed and discussed (Hilbeck and Andow, 2004; Andow et al., 2006; Garcia-Alonso et al., 2006; Hilbeck et al., 2006; Romeis et al., 2006).

The development of regulatory and scientific capacity for risk assessment as well as training for farmers on proper technology use is needed to enable developing countries to benefit from biotechnology.

Realization of the benefits of GM technology in the countries will be closely linked to the understanding of the technology and the involved biosafety issues at all levels (e.g., policy, regulation, science, legal, socioeconomic, farm) and with the countries' capabilities to implement the Cartagena Protocol on Biosafety (www.cbd.int/biosafety/default.shtml). All signatory countries are currently working on the implementation of the Protocol within national contexts. However, developing countries lack national capacities on almost all involved fields, particularly biosafety. A number of capacity development projects for the implementation of the Cartagena Protocol on Biosafety are currently on-going (www.gmo-guidelines.info; www.biosafetrain.dk/, www. ribios.ch; www.unep.ch/biosafety/) but need to be complemented by efforts to develop academic educational programs for biosafety degrees (www.cbd.int/doc/newsletters/ bpn/bpn-issue02.pdf).

Livestock/fish

Production of transgenic livestock for food production is technically feasible, but at an earlier stage of development than the equivalent technologies in plants.

Progress has been made in developing transgenic technologies in animals, including fish. To date, at least 10 species of fish have been modified for enhanced growth, including common carp, crucian carp, channel catfish, loach, tilapia, pike, rainbow trout, Atlantic salmon, chinook salmon, and sockeye salmon (Dey, 2000). These, however, have yet to be approved for commercialization (Aerni, 2001 as cited in Delgado et al., 2003). In animals there is also a focus on disease resistance through transferring genes from one breed or species to another. Coupled with new dissemination methods (e.g., cloning) these techniques are expected to dramatically change livestock production. However, there are many issues that need to be addressed regarding the lack of knowledge about candidate genes for transfer, as well as ethical and animal welfare concerns and a lack of consumer acceptance in some countries. Other constraints include the lack of an appropriate industry structure to capitalize on the technologies, and the high cost of the technologies.

3.2.1.5 Advances in soil and water management

Fertilizer and irrigation AKSTs have had a significant impact on agricultural production globally. The focus is currently on increasing the efficiency of resource use in order to reduce the negative environmental effects of over use and to reduce use of a diminishing resource.

Soil management

The use of traditional natural fallows to sustainably increase the carrying capacity of the land is now uncommon.

Traditionally, degraded crop fields were restored by allowing native vegetation to regenerate as a natural fallow. Fallows