of people and high existing stresses on the natural resource base. In the absence of appropriate management and moni­toring of resources, the negative environmental and health effects of UPA are critical concerns.
     In order to enhance the positive consequences of UPA for urban livelihoods, resource utilization and the environ­ment, research must bridge the gap between UPA research and practice and between urban planning and policy. Other constraints to UPA in urban areas of the ESAP region in­clude limited and declining land, polluted irrigated systems and wastewater contamination. As municipalities play an important role in urban planning, their involvement is criti­cal for promoting UPA for its potential contributions to im­proving the urban environment.

5.2.5     Human, animal and zoonotic diseases
HIV/AIDS:  The  current  situation  of HIV/AIDs-infected and affected people in the region remains grim; 4.3 million people were newly infected in 2006, with East Asia host to one of the fastest rates of infection (United Nations, 2007). Almost half of those living with HIV in the region are women, with an increasing number being married women and youth between the ages of 15 to 24 years (Mehta and Gupta, 2005). Gender inequality and economic imbalances continue to drive the "feminization" of the HIV epidemic (United Nations, 2007). In the absence of accessible, afford­able health care and social acceptance, HIV has the poten­tial to affect not only individuals, but entire communities and economies—as witnessed in large parts of Africa.
     Key interventions to control infection have expanded in recent years; however, they are not sufficient to arrest infection rates. Country-specific and region wide consulta­tions (i.e., public hearings, women's court) are held with some success and include HIV-positive people's networks, local and international NGOs, experts and practitioners of HIV control initiatives and international development part­ners. Additional interventions could include such enabling strategies as ensuring employment opportunities for HIV infected and affected people, the implementation of policies to protect women's inheritance and property rights (Bhatla et al., 2007); dignity-based access to health care, educa­tion, skill development programs, training and an inclusive community-based approach to overcome the local world of shame and social stigma often experienced by HIV infected/ affected people.

Avian flu: The 2004 avian flu outbreak of the deadly H5N1 strain of avian influenza in East Asia resulted in the extermi­nation death of 140 million domesticated poultry and birds (WHO Global Influenza Program Surveillance Network, 2005; Webster, 2006). The outbreak also proved that avian flu may be transmitted from birds to humans, with 130 hu­man cases, including 70 fatalities, of avian flu in Vietnam, Thailand, Cambodia and Indonesia (Webster, 2006).
     The damage caused by the epidemic made apparent that, despite intermittent outbreaks since the 1990s, most ESAP countries are not adequately prepared to cope with this disease. Few governments have rapid response mecha­nisms to warn of possible culling campaigns or offer ap­propriate compensation (Martin, 2006). FAO has provided

guidance on establishing mechanisms and programs for surveillance, monitoring and diagnostics and early warning systems (FAO, 2004a).
     These outbreaks have severely tested the capacity of na­tional agricultural extension systems across the region. The Thai experience of 2004 showed weakness in the capacity of extension systems to timely and efficiently report outbreaks. Communication systems need to be improved to ensure that reports of local outbreaks are transmitted to appropriate authorities at the national level to ensure immediate surveil­lance and diagnostics to arrest further spread to other areas (FAO, 2004a). Public funds must be mobilized to improve the capacity of local extension workers to conduct surveil­lance and detection, as well as to handle outbreaks. Such training programs need to target poultry-raisers, especially those small backyard producers who comprise the major­ity of the poultry sector in the developing ESAP countries. Regular capacity building programs on preparedness for veterinary diseases need to include avian flu outbreaks, even in countries that have yet to be affected by the virus.
     Public awareness and education on avian flu, especially among segments of the population involved in handling poultry, is also critical. Indonesia was severely hit by the 2004 outbreak and has now invested heavily in public edu­cation, while Thailand implemented a national public edu­cation program focusing on preventing virus transmission (Olsen, 2005). Greater awareness is needed regarding the risks and costs of avian flu outbreaks need improvement, as well as coordination between appropriate authorities and law enforcers. Prevention measures such as fencing poultry populations to keep them away from wild birds suspected of carrying highly pathogenic avian flu virus need to be sup­ported, possibly through incentive mechanisms to encour­age cooperation from those for whom fencing costs may be prohibitive, especially in countries where free-range raising of chickens and ducks is traditionally practiced (Martin, 2006).
     Governments also need to allocate emergency funds to provide immediate and fair compensation for culled flocks, especially to backyard poultry raisers whose livelihoods depend primarily on small-scale poultry raising (Martin, 2006). For example, during the 2004 outbreak, Thailand allocated a budget of US$132.5 million for direct compensa­tion to affected farmers (Tiensin, 2005). Countries may also consider investing in vaccination of poultry against avian flu, but while vaccination may be a possibility for large-scale poultry raisers, it is largely inaccessible to backyard raisers dependent on government support. Investment must also take into account the resources needed to develop extension worker capacity to properly and safely handle vaccines from the source to the farms. In considering various options it is crucial to account for the impacts on animal and human health of veterinary vaccines and antibiotics (Ho, 2007).

5.2.6     Institutional and governance practices
As agriculture in the ESAP region is changing rapidly, orga­nizations must continuously evolve appropriate institutions and governance systems to respond to new challenges. De­signing, evaluating and implementing institutional reforms will be a continuing challenge for managers in Research,