gent biosafety framework. We suggest that the development of organic agriculture can also supply a growing regional demand while helping to improve rural livelihoods and hu­man health. Despite the inroads of information technology in many parts of Asia, information asymmetry remains a serious challenge, even recognizing that the information and communication technologies gap between expert and layperson has shrunk. Improvement in the availability and outreach of information is still required to strengthen adapt­ability and science based capacity to build and support new knowledge streams.
     The chapter concludes with a discussion of institutions and policies and trade and markets, covering a range of is­sues, including public-private-community partnerships and networks, organizational reforms and enabling environ­ments including decentralized and community-based enti­ties with experience in science and technology generation and management. Further, technical and funding assistance from development partners can offer opportunities to gal­vanize efforts that reduce the mismatch between economic growth and poverty, vulnerability and inequality through­out the ESAP region. The section closes with an examina­tion of trade policies and the steps required to ensure their consistency with development and sustainability goals.

5.2      Emerging Challenges
To feed the anticipated world population of approximately 9 billion people by 2050, 99% of whose growth will be in developing countries, food production will have to be trebled on dwindling arable land and freshwater resources (Population Reference Bureau, 2002). Options for increas­ing food production while reducing dependence on water resources and contributing to sustainable environmental practices are limited (Serageldin, 1999; Chrispeels, 2000; Vasil, 2003). Per capita available arable land area will be reduced by 50% over the next 50 years, with prime land being lost to industrialization and urbanization in a num­ber of rapidly growing ESAP countries (Krattiger, 1998). Further, yield gains from the input and seed-oriented tech­nologies utilized since the 1970s are stagnant or declin­ing and unlikely to be able to keep pace with increasing population pressure in the region (Bouis, 1993; Cassman et al., 1995). The conversion of marginal areas into produc­tive land, expansion of low-cost irrigation and trait modi­fication and improved management through transgenic and nanotechnologies offer only limited potential (Crosson and Anderson, 1992; Peng et al., 1994; Carruthers et al., 1997; Rosegrant, 1997; Huang et al., 2002) while increasing the productivity of agricultural systems in ESAP continues to be complicated by climate change, animal and human diseases, social inequalities and the need for changes in institutional and governance practices.

5.2.1      Natural resources
The ESAP region's natural resources (soil, forests and water) are being degraded in intensive as well as non-intensive agri­cultural systems, from both the over- and under-utilization of inputs. In the developed countries in the region, high rates of inorganic and organic fertilizer have led to soil and wa­ter contamination (NRC, 1989; Conway and Pretty, 1991), while in the developing countries, population pressure, land

constraints and poor soil management have reduced soil fertility with attendant biodiversity and functionality losses (Stoorvogel and Smaling, 1990; Tandon, 1998; Henao and Baanante, 1999). In the recently released National Develop­ment Programme Compendium of Science and Technology for Medium-Long Term (2006-2020), the Government of China recognized a range of resource management prob­lems including eco-safety, land degradation and desertifica­tion, water shortage and water pollution. China's agricul­tural challenges also include serious surface water pollution arising from the improper use and disposal of some 3 x 109 tonnes of manure annually and the excessive application of pesticides and fertilizers on land and water.
     Forests cover almost 30% of the land area in Asia, are critical for providing products and services and contribute to the cultural and spiritual heritage of much of the region's population   (CFAN,   2004).   Throughout  the   developing countries of ESAP, intensive timber harvesting, expanding commercial agriculture and the conversion of forests to rubber or oil palm plantations have contributed to forest degradation, primarily in Indonesia, Malaysia, Myanmar and Thailand (FAO, 2003a). Land and forest degradation, climate change, air and water pollution, water shortage and the loss of biodiversity are now the focus of new social and environmental movements (Krishna, 2004) that seek im­proved agricultural efficiencies and new policy measures.
     Water shortages are common throughout rural and ur­ban areas of the region. Although China has 28% of the world average per capita availability of water, it is estimated to have a shortage of 30 x 109 km3 per year. While there may be sufficient water in much of the region for domestic as well as agricultural and industrial use, the poor are generally systematically excluded from access (UNDP, 2006). Among the poor, women and girls face a distinct disadvantage since they often sacrifice education and skill development to collect water. Moreover, lacking informal rights to land, women are excluded from irrigation systems management. These deep-seated inequalities, such as gender division of household labor, norms on women speaking in public and constraints on women's mobility, adversely affect women's decision-making in community management, farmers' asso­ciations and water user groups.
     Addressing inequities in water access will require clear targets for reducing asset-based land and water inequalities and establishing regulatory systems for public-private-com­munity partnerships to provide clean water and sanitation to  households at  affordable prices.  The National  Slum Dwellers Federation in India, Orangi Pilot Project in Paki­stan and Total Sanitation Campaign in Bangladesh (adopted in Cambodia, Chain and India) are examples of community-government partnerships that have led to rapid increases in access to sanitation and water. However, efforts to address competing uses of water are frustrated by the separation of administrative responsibilities for water and agriculture. In many cases, building on local artisans and local joint management would help to expand water  development technologies. There is also a need for process monitoring to understand the logic of adoption and build coherence among administrative functions and policies to equitably resolve rights over competing water uses. Resolution mech­anisms might include establishing and strengthening inter-