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Looking Forward: Role of AKST in Meeting Development and Sustainability Goals | 151

 

tantly, manure, through contaminated water or fresh produce, can carry a range of serious human pathogens, with high incidence of morbidity and mortality, particularly in babies and young children. These pathogens, often asymptomatic in livestock, vary from bacterial pathogens such as E. coli, Campylobacter, Salmonella, and Leptospira spp., and protozoan agents (Cryptosporidium) to viruses such as the hepatitis A virus (World Bank, 2005).
     The potential threats of pollution to the environment and human health will have to be watched cautiously. Removing policy distortions that promote artificial economies of scale in livestock production, developing approaches to let resource-poor producers capitalize from the benefits of increased livestock production, and regulatin environmental and public health concerns will represent important challenges for CWANA decision makers. Technological options for improved handling and storage of animal waste exist and may be promoted by adding value to these wastes by using them in biogas digesters for energy production and as fertilizers. Areawide integration of specialized crop and livestock production may help to reinstall the link between livestock and crop production, not only on the farm but on a regional scale. By fostering collaboration between specialized livestock operations and crop farmers, animal waste may be recycled in an environmentally and economically beneficial way (Menzi et al., 2003).

5.3.3 Fisheries and aquaculture
About 200 types of diseases are known that can be transferred from foods to humans (FAO, 2000). Fish products can be a source of disease due to general food habits, rate of consumption, type of product and species of fish. Therefore, fish producers have established and applied a system called Hazard Analysis & Critical Control Points to eliminate or reduce the adverse health effects of fish products.

Several organic substances such as dioxin and inorganic substances such as cadmium and mercury can affect fish quality. Their deleterious effects increase if they exceed the maximum allowable limits and if they occur in closed seas and rivers (FAO, 2004). Even if these substances occur in food fishes in low quantity, their incidence may be of concern for people who eat fish daily and for pregnant women, infants and children who eat large quantities of fatty fishes.

The safety of aquaculture products is important as production from aquaculture has increased and become available to more people. Antibiotics are frequently used in aquaculture to prevent or treat diseases. Therefore, responsible limiting of the use of antibiotics is important for sustainability aquaculture and for safety of fish products. Responsible use implies determining the maximum residue level of these antibiotics and ensuring that these levels are not exceeded.

Food safety in fisheries is important and has been endorsed by international agreements. The FAO Code of Conduct for Responsible Fisheries clearly requests countries to develop their fisheries in a way that does not result in environmental degradation or health problems for people.

5.3.4 Water management
Changing water use for agriculture will entail implications beyond the agricultural sector. Consideration of externali-

 

ties through application of IWRM may avoid negative effects on the environment and society.

5.3.4.1 Conflict over water resources
As a result of increasing water demands for agriculture, depletion of water sources and conflicts over them are expected to increase in CWANA. These conflicts may arise at various levels such as among sectors using water or among different user groups. Regional conflicts between countries over shared water resources will probably intensify; conflicts over surface and groundwater sources may accelerate and add to existing tensions and conflicts in the region. Possible conflict areas might include the Tigris, Euphrates, Jordan, Indus and Nile river basins. Conflicts over groundwater sources might include the countries of North Africa and the Middle East. Mitigation of such conflict potential may include demand management in different facets, bi- and multilateral negotiations and agreements, or an increase in virtual water trade—e.g., by producing and exporting highvalue crops with low water requirements and importing water-intensive crops from a subsidized world market (Allan, 2002). Negotiations should respect the Helsinki rules and guidelines (International Law Association, 1967) and
foster their implementation to avoid conflict; regional parties need to cooperate to formulate regional solutions for water shortages.
     Nearly all water resources in the region are being used. Therefore, water shortages are expected to result in more pressure on the agricultural sector to divert water from agriculture to other uses such as industrial and domestic sectors. This will result in conflict among sectors and internal socioeconomic and political tensions. Each country of the region will need to address these conflicts specifically, but participation of all concerned stakeholders in pertinent discussions and negotiations will greatly facilitate solutions that allow for optimized economic and social welfare derived from
water resources, their equitable allocation and their environmental sustainability. The systems of water rights and water allocation will have to be adapted in all countries of the region, addressing water allocation among the sectors and respecting historical water rights of the different users. The promotion of water-user groups (or water-user associations)
who jointly manage and organize water distribution may improve the efficiency of water use and the distribution and management of water resources while at the same time empowering local populations and relieving public institutions. If all concerned stakeholders can participate in such associations internal conflicts over water distribution and water allocation may be mitigated.

Improving on-farm water management and the efficiency of water distribution can reduce return flows and possibly reduce recharge of certain groundwater aquifers. Since existing resources are fully used in most countries of the region, reducing return flows and improving the efficiency of water use at the upstream end of any river basin might result in reducing water availability for downstream users, thereby increasing conflicts over water resources. For example, when surface water systems are replaced by pressurized irrigation systems or if surface irrigation efficiency is improved (e.g., using surge irrigation), tail water runoff will reduce. Upstream users will increase their irrigated areas as a result of water
 
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